Everything below concerns ACTH 片段. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-07-30. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 结构类别 | 线性合成七肽 | 无环化结构，不含二硫键 |
| 氨基酸序列 | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | N 端为甲硫氨酸 |
| 分子量 | 约 814 Da | 游离碱形式的计算值 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 具吸湿性 |
| 溶解性 | 易溶于水 | 亦可溶于甲醇等极性溶剂 |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
Semax 是一种人工合成的七肽，氨基酸序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，单字母缩写记作 MEHFPGP。它被归类为促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10) 的结构类似物，但并不天然存在于生物体内。母体片段 ACTH(4-10) 的序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly，Semax 替换了中间两个残基，并在羧基端延长了 Pro-Gly-Pro 三肽。这种延长被普遍认为能提升分子对肽酶的耐受性。
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
LECT2 Amyloidosis (ALECT2) is a form of amyloidosis caused by the LECT2 protein. It was found to be the third most common (~3% of total) cause of amyloidosis in a set of more than 4,000 individuals studied at the Mayo Clinic; the first and second most common forms the disorder were AL amyloidosis and AA amyloidosis, respectively. Amyloidosis is a disorder in which the abnormal deposition of a protein in organs and/or tissues gradually leads to organ failure and/or tissue injury. Although more than 30 different proteins can cause amyloidosis, the disorder caused by LECT2 is distinctive in three ways. First, it has an unusually high incidence in certain ethnic populations. Second, it is a systemic form of amyloidosis (i.e. amyloid deposited in multiple organs), as opposed to a localized form (amyloid deposits limited to a single organ) but nonetheless injures the kidney without or rarely injuring the other organs in which it is deposited. Third, LECT2 amyloidosis is diagnosed almost exclusively in elderly individuals. Given its relatively recent discovery, exceptionally strong ethnic bias, limitation to causing kidney disease, and restriction to elderly individuals, LECT2 amyloidosis appears at present to be an under-recognized cause of chronic kidney disease particularly in the ethnic groups that exhibit a high incidence of the disorder.
After a few warmup gigs throughout the Bay Area in 1969, Dawson, Nelson, and Torbert began to tour in May 1970 as part of a tripartite bill advertised as "An Evening with the Grateful Dead". An acoustic Grateful Dead set that often included contributions from Dawson and Nelson would then segue into New Riders and electric Dead sets, obviating the need to hire external opening acts. By the time the New Riders recorded their first album, there were several personnel changes. Hart temporarily left the Grateful Dead in February 1971. Although Hart contributed to two tracks on the album, former Jefferson Airplane drummer Spencer Dryden replaced him in the New Riders prior to his departure from the parent group. Dryden would remain with the group for ten years, ultimately serving as the band's manager. Their first album, eponymously titled was released on Columbia Records (under a contract informed by Clive Davis's long-term aspiration to sign the Grateful Dead) in late 1971. It proved to be a moderate success comparable to the Dead's releases of the era, peaking at No. 39 on the Billboard 200 chart. Entirely composed by Dawson (in comparison to the more egalitarian songwriting of later releases), the record was driven by Garcia's pedal-steel playing. With the New Riders desiring to become more of a self-sufficient group and Garcia needing to focus on his other responsibilities, the musician parted ways with the group in November 1971. Seasoned pedal steel player Buddy Cage was recruited from Ian and Sylvia's Great Speckled Bird to replace Garcia.
== External links == Sulfur at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) Atomic Data for Sulfur, NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory Sulfur phase diagram Archived 23 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Introduction to Chemistry for Ages 13–17 Crystalline, liquid and polymerization of sulfur on Vulcano Island, Italy Sulfur and its use as a pesticide The Sulphur Institute Nutrient Stewardship and The Sulphur Institute
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Unseeded PMCA === PMCA can work even without a starting mass of PrPSc. While this behavior is not desirable for those using PMCA as a detection tool, it has implications for understanding the nature of the TSE pathogen. This conversion is analogous to the sporadic form of TSE.
== Description == Like all holometabolic insects, T. molitor goes through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Larvae typically measure about 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) or more. Adults are generally 1.25 to 1.8 centimetres (0.49 to 0.71 in) in length. T. molitor is dark brown or black as an adult, with larvae up to 1.25 inches (3.2 cm) long and adults up to 0.75 inches (1.9 cm) long. The yellow mealworm beetle can be differentiated from other beetles, due to the linear grooves that are evenly divided and run along the abdomen. The beetle has only four tarsal segments on its hind legs. Most ground beetles, which are similar in size to Tenebrio molitor, have five tarsal segments. Commonly mistaken with the black mealworm beetle (T. obscurus), key variations in regard to size and shape distinguish these two. The abdomen of the adult black mealworm beetle is more rounded and ends in a pointed tip, as opposed to the more rectangular and blunt-ended abdomen of the yellow mealworm beetle. The larvae of T. molitor are lighter colored than those of T. obscurus.
Both DWEL and Cleanup Guidance were based on a 2005 review of the existing research by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). Lacking a federal drinking water standard, several states subsequently published their own standards for perchlorate including Massachusetts in 2006 and California in 2007. Other states, including Arizona, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, and Texas have established non-enforceable, advisory levels for perchlorate. In 2008, EPA issued an interim drinking water health advisory for perchlorate and with it a guidance and analysis concerning the impacts on the environment and drinking water. California also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use. Both the Department of Defense and some environmental groups voiced questions about the NAS report, but no credible science has emerged to challenge the NAS findings. In February 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that U.S. toddlers on average were being exposed to more than half of EPA's safe dose from food alone. In March 2009, a Centers for Disease Control study found 15 brands of infant formula contaminated with perchlorate and that combined with existing perchlorate drinking water contamination, infants could be at risk for perchlorate exposure above the levels considered safe by EPA. In 2010, the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection set a 10 fold lower RfD (0.07 μg/kg/day) than the NAS RfD using a much higher uncertainty factor of 100. They also calculated an Infant drinking water value, which neither US EPA nor CalEPA had done.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Recreational === In the 1970s, recreational drug users discovered that combining pentazocine with tripelennamine (a first-generation ethylenediamine antihistamine most commonly dispensed under the brand names Pelamine and Pyribenzamine) produced a euphoric sensation. Since tripelennamine tablets are typically blue in color and brand-name Pentazocine was sold as Talwin, the pentazocine/tripelennamine combination acquired the slang name Ts and blues. After health-care professionals and drug-enforcement officials became aware of this scenario, the μ-opioid receptor antagonist naloxone was added to oral preparations containing pentazocine to prevent perceived misuse via injection, and the reported incidence of recreational use has declined precipitously since.
== Practice of therapeutic drug monitoring == Automated analytical methods such as enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique or fluorescence polarization immunoassay are widely available in medical laboratories for drugs frequently measured in practice. Nowadays, most other drugs can be readily measured in blood or plasma using versatile methods such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry or gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, which progressively replaced high-performance liquid chromatography. Yet, TDM is not limited to the provision of precise and accurate concentration measurement results, it also involves appropriate medical interpretation, based on robust scientific knowledge. In order to guarantee the quality of this clinical interpretation, it is essential that the sample be taken under good conditions: i.e., preferably under a stable dosage, at a standardized sampling time (often at the end of a dosing interval), excluding any source of bias (sample contamination or dilution, analytical interferences) and having carefully recorded the sampling time, the last dose intake time, the current dosage and the influential patient's characteristics.
=== Endocrine disruption === LeBlanc's research in the field of toxicology, particularly centered on endocrine disruption, has contributed to the understanding of the impact of environmental contaminants on human and wildlife health. He investigated the impacts of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on mammals, fishes, reptiles, and invertebrates. He identified the suite of nuclear receptors in the crustacean, Daphnia pulex, and functionally characterized several of these receptors. He deciphered the neuro-endocrine signaling pathway responsible for sex determination in some crustaceans, including the discovery of the hormone responsible for sex determination, methyl farnesoate, and its receptor protein. He also demonstrated that some insecticides can mimic the action of methyl farnesoate in daphnids resulting in altered sex ratios of offspring. In 2005, LeBlanc created a mathematical model that integrated concentration addition, response addition, and toxicokinetic interactions to enable the assessment of the toxicity of chemical mixtures. He demonstrated the utility of this model by assessing the joint toxicity of 9 chemicals commonly found in surface waters in the US. This model has been used by regulatory agencies and has been recommended by the National Research Council in the assessment of risks to endangered and threatened species from exposure to pesticide mixtures.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。
Semax 对应 ACTH 第 4 至第 10 位的片段，并在两端做了替换与延长，使其不再具备促肾上腺皮质激素的典型内分泌活性。这一改动同时改变了它在体内的稳定性与分布特征。
俄罗斯将其列为处方药物，需要医生开具处方。多数其他国家把它当作研究化合物，不能作为药品销售或宣称疗效。具体合法性取决于当地法规。
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.