The short version of intranasal delivery fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2026-08-01 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid from research suppliers |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in aqueous buffers; solutions are used fresh |
| Typical storage temperature | -20 °C for lyophilized powder | Short-term transport at 2-8 °C is common |
| Common analytical method | Reverse-phase HPLC | Paired with mass spectrometry for identity confirmation |
| Common synonyms | ACTH(4-10) analogue; MEHFPGP | N-terminal methionine retained in the chain |
The peptide is prone to several degradation pathways. Oxidation of the methionine residue produces a sulfoxide that elutes close to the parent peak in many chromatographic systems. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds and deamidation of susceptible residues in related sequences also reduce purity over time. Lyophilised material kept dry at minus twenty degrees Celsius and shielded from light is the most stable form commonly described in laboratory practice.
Material sold for laboratory use varies widely in stated purity and documentation. A certificate of analysis should list the analytical method, the column and detector used, and the observed purity value. Independent verification by an outside laboratory is the practical way to confirm identity when documentation is absent or internally inconsistent. Regulatory status differs by country, and a product legal in one jurisdiction may be unapproved or controlled in another.
Identity and purity of semax are established with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet detection, usually at 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry, most often electrospray ionisation in positive mode, confirms the molecular mass and reveals truncated sequences. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion provide additional structural confirmation. Laboratories typically report purity as the percentage area of the main peak, a figure that does not capture isomeric or oxidised variants unless the method resolves them.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
Identity and purity of Semax are established mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The chromatographic trace gives a purity estimate as a percentage of total peak area, while electrospray or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization confirms the molecular mass against the calculated value. Amino acid analysis and sequence-specific fragmentation provide further confirmation when a supplier's chain of custody is unclear. Vendors frequently quote a purity figure without stating the detection wavelength or the integration method, which limits how far one number can be compared with another.
Elected Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954 Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) – 1963 Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) – 1981 Birthday Honours Member of the Order of Merit (OM) – 1986 Corresponding Member of the Australian Academy of Science – 1982 William Bate Hardy Prize – 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry – 1958, 1980 Corday–Morgan Medal – 1951 Royal Medal – 1969 Gairdner Foundation International Award – 1971 Copley Medal – 1977 G.W. Wheland Award – 1978 Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize of Columbia University – 1979 Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research – 1979 Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities Award – 1994 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement – 2000 Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society – 2016 The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute (formerly the Sanger Centre) is named in his honour.
== List of 4K streaming providers == Netflix - offers 4K contents on Premium plan, 4K-capable devices and 4K-capable shows; offers HDR on 4K contents. YouTube - offers 4K contents on 4K-capable videos.
BMP: The What and the Who BMPedia - the Bone Morphogenetic Protein Wiki Bone+Morphogenetic+Proteins at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Chen D, Zhao M, Mundy GR (Dec 2004). "Bone morphogenetic proteins". Growth Factors (Chur, Switzerland). 22 (4): 233–241. doi:10.1080/08977190412331279890. PMID 15621726. S2CID 22932278. Cheng H, Jiang W, Phillips FM, Haydon RC, Peng Y, Zhou L, Luu HH, An N, Breyer B, Vanichakarn P, Szatkowski JP, Park JY, He TC (Aug 2003). "Osteogenic activity of the fourteen types of human bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 85-A (8): 1544–52. doi:10.2106/00004623-200308000-00017. PMID 12925636. link[link removed]
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Microsomal glutathione S-transferase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MGST2 gene. The MAPEG (Membrane-Associated Proteins in Eicosanoid and Glutathione metabolism) family consists of six human proteins, several of which are involved in the production of leukotrienes and prostaglandin E, important mediators of inflammation. This gene encodes a protein that catalyzes the conjugation of leukotriene A4 and reduced glutathione to produce leukotriene C4.
Formed solid unit doses of pharmaceuticals (capsules, suppositories, tablets, etc.) are commonly packed in blister packs. In Europe about 85% of solid unit doses are packed in blister packs with only about 20% in North America. Blister packs are pre-formed plastic/paper/foil packaging used for formed solid drugs. The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic film. Blister packs are useful for protecting drugs against external factors, such as humidity and contamination for extended periods of time. Blister packing machinery is readily available and is suited to validation processes.
=== Traditional chemical synthesis === A large toolbox of chemical reactions is available for each step of the synthesis of a fine chemical. The reactions have been developed on laboratory scale by academia over the last two centuries and subsequently adapted to industrial scale, such as the manufacture of dyestuffs & pigments. Methods of Molecular Transformations describes 26,000 organic synthetic methods, about 10% of which are currently used on an industrial scale for fine chemicals production. Amination, condensation, esterification, Friedel–Crafts, Grignard, halogenation (especially chlorination), hydrogenation, and reduction (both catalytic and chemical) are the most frequently mentioned techniques on the websites of individual companies. Optically active cyanohydrins, cyclopolymerization, ionic liquids, nitrones, oligonucleotides, peptide (both liquid- and solid-phase), electrochemical reactions (like perfluorination) and steroid synthesis are promoted by only a limited number of companies. With the exception of some stereospecific reactions, particularly biotechnology, mastering these technologies does not represent a distinct competitive advantage. Most reactions can be carried out in standard multipurpose plants. The very versatile organometallic reactions (e.g., conversions with lithium aluminum hydride, boronic acids) may require temperatures as low as −100 °C (−148 °F), which can be achieved only in special cryogenic reaction units, either by using liquefied nitrogen as coolant or by installing a low-temperature unit.
== Complications == One review of 23 publications involved a total of 889 patients reported an overall rate of complications of 18%. Reported complications are mostly minor, and include: bleeding, perianal pain / discomfort (which may rarely be persistent), leakage of injected material, infection / abscess (which rarely may require drainage), mucosal erosion, obstructed defecation, hypersensitivity reaction, hematoma, diarrhea, pruritus ani, dermatitis, and bowel urgency (sudden strong urge to defecate).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Collagenases are enzymes that break the peptide bonds in collagen. They assist in destroying extracellular structures in the pathogenesis of bacteria such as Clostridium. They are considered a virulence factor, facilitating the spread of gas gangrene. They normally target the connective tissue in muscle cells and other body organs. Collagen, a key component of the animal extracellular matrix, is made through cleavage of pro-collagen by collagenase once it has been secreted from the cell. This stops large structures from forming inside the cell itself. In addition to being produced by some bacteria, collagenase can be made by the body as part of its normal immune response. This production is induced by cytokines, which stimulate cells such as fibroblasts and osteoblasts, and can cause indirect tissue damage.
Further separation was carried out in the presence of a citric acid/ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium (pH ≈ 3.5), using ion exchange at elevated temperature. The chromatographic separation behavior was unknown for element 97 at the time but was anticipated by analogy with terbium. The first results were disappointing because no alpha-particle emission signature could be detected from the elution product. With further analysis, searching for characteristic X-rays and conversion electron signals, a berkelium isotope was eventually detected. Its mass number was uncertain between 243 and 244 in the initial report, but was later established as 243.
=== Esomeprazole === Omeprazole showed an inter-individual variability and therefore a significant number of patients with acid-related disorders required higher or multiple doses to achieve symptom relief and healing. Astra started a new research program in 1987 to identify a new analogue to omeprazole with less interpatient variability. Only one compound proved superior to omeprazole and that was the (S)-(−)-isomer, esomeprazole, which was developed as the magnesium salt. Esomeprazole magnesium (brand name Nexium) received its first approval in 2000 and provided more pronounced inhibition of acid secretion and less inter-patient variation compared to omeprazole. In 2004, Nexium had already been used to treat over 200 million patients.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It consists mainly of animal experiments and small clinical reports, with much of the clinical material published in Russian-language journals. Large independent trials are scarce. Separating reliable effects from chance findings is consequently difficult.
A fraction of an intranasal dose is thought to reach the central nervous system, and this route is favoured partly for that reason. The proportion is not well characterized. Direct measurement in humans remains difficult with current methods.
Raised BDNF and NGF expression has been reported across several animal studies, which makes the signal fairly consistent. Whether the same change occurs in humans at usable doses is not established. It is best treated as a working hypothesis rather than a confirmed clinical mechanism.
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.